Broad features of society

HMS, HIC 2012 HSC 29a

Explain the determining factors that affect the health of young people in Australia. (8 marks)

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Socioeconomic factors significantly impact young people’s health through education, employment and income levels. When families experience financial disadvantage, this leads to reduced access to nutritious food, healthcare services and recreational facilities. For example, adolescents from low-income households are more likely to consume processed foods due to cost constraints, resulting in higher obesity rates and nutritional deficiencies. Educational disadvantage creates limited health literacy, preventing young people from making informed health decisions.
Environmental determinants influence health through both built and natural surroundings. Poor housing conditions create respiratory problems while lack of safe recreational spaces limits physical activity opportunities. Urban pollution causes increased asthma rates among young people, particularly those living near busy roads or industrial areas. Inadequate transport infrastructure results in social isolation and reduced healthcare access.
Sociocultural factors shape health behaviours through peer influence, family values and cultural norms. Social media exposure leads to body image concerns and mental health issues among teenagers. Family attitudes towards alcohol and substance use directly affect adolescent experimentation patterns. Cultural beliefs about help-seeking behaviour can prevent young people from accessing mental health support services.
Individual health behaviours determine immediate and long-term health outcomes. Risk-taking behaviours such as excessive alcohol consumption, smoking and unprotected sexual activity result in acute injuries, addiction and sexually transmitted infections among young Australians.

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Socioeconomic factors significantly impact young people’s health through education, employment and income levels. When families experience financial disadvantage, this leads to reduced access to nutritious food, healthcare services and recreational facilities. For example, adolescents from low-income households are more likely to consume processed foods due to cost constraints, resulting in higher obesity rates and nutritional deficiencies. Educational disadvantage creates limited health literacy, preventing young people from making informed health decisions.
Environmental determinants influence health through both built and natural surroundings. Poor housing conditions create respiratory problems while lack of safe recreational spaces limits physical activity opportunities. Urban pollution causes increased asthma rates among young people, particularly those living near busy roads or industrial areas. Inadequate transport infrastructure results in social isolation and reduced healthcare access.
Sociocultural factors shape health behaviours through peer influence, family values and cultural norms. Social media exposure leads to body image concerns and mental health issues among teenagers. Family attitudes towards alcohol and substance use directly affect adolescent experimentation patterns. Cultural beliefs about help-seeking behaviour can prevent young people from accessing mental health support services.
Individual health behaviours determine immediate and long-term health outcomes. Risk-taking behaviours such as excessive alcohol consumption, smoking and unprotected sexual activity result in acute injuries, addiction and sexually transmitted infections among young Australians.

♦♦ Mean mark 50%.

HMS, HIC 2016 HSC 27a

Explain how individual and sociocultural factors can adversely affect the health of young people. (8 marks)

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Individual factors

Individual factors directly influence young people’s health through personal characteristics and behavioural choices that increase risk-taking behaviours.
This occurs because adolescent brain development affects decision-making capacity and impulse control during critical developmental periods.
For instance, when young males exhibit higher sensation-seeking tendencies, they engage in dangerous driving behaviours leading to increased motor vehicle accidents.
This demonstrates why individual risk-taking attitudes contribute significantly to injury-related hospitalisations among teenagers.

Genetic predisposition

Genetic predisposition creates vulnerability to mental health conditions that emerge during adolescence and early adulthood.
This happens because family history of depression and anxiety disorders increases likelihood of developing similar conditions.
Evidence of this includes young people with family mental health history experiencing onset of depressive symptoms during stressful periods.
The result is higher rates of self-harm and suicide attempts among genetically predisposed adolescents.

Sociocultural factors

Sociocultural factors generate peer pressure influences that promote unhealthy behaviours and substance experimentation among young people.
Social media platforms trigger unrealistic body image expectations and cyberbullying experiences that damage self-esteem.
A clear example is teenage girls developing eating disorders after exposure to idealised social media content.
Additionally, peer groups normalise binge drinking behaviours during social gatherings, leading to alcohol-related emergency department presentations and risky sexual behaviours among adolescents.

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Individual factors

Individual factors directly influence young people’s health through personal characteristics and behavioural choices that increase risk-taking behaviours.
This occurs because adolescent brain development affects decision-making capacity and impulse control during critical developmental periods.
For instance, when young males exhibit higher sensation-seeking tendencies, they engage in dangerous driving behaviours leading to increased motor vehicle accidents.
This demonstrates why individual risk-taking attitudes contribute significantly to injury-related hospitalisations among teenagers.

Genetic predisposition

Genetic predisposition creates vulnerability to mental health conditions that emerge during adolescence and early adulthood.
This happens because family history of depression and anxiety disorders increases likelihood of developing similar conditions.
Evidence of this includes young people with family mental health history experiencing onset of depressive symptoms during stressful periods.
The result is higher rates of self-harm and suicide attempts among genetically predisposed adolescents.

Sociocultural factors

Sociocultural factors generate peer pressure influences that promote unhealthy behaviours and substance experimentation among young people.
Social media platforms trigger unrealistic body image expectations and cyberbullying experiences that damage self-esteem.
A clear example is teenage girls developing eating disorders after exposure to idealised social media content.
Additionally, peer groups normalise binge drinking behaviours during social gatherings, leading to alcohol-related emergency department presentations and risky sexual behaviours among adolescents.

♦ Mean mark 55%.

HMS, HIC EQ-Bank 122

Describe how political structures and policies can function as a determinant of health in Australia. (5 marks)

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Answers could include a selection of the following:

Medicare

Political structures directly influence healthcare accessibility through universal healthcare programs like Medicare.
Medicare provides free treatment in public hospitals and subsidised medical services, reducing financial barriers to healthcare

Education and training

Government policies on education funding impact long-term health outcomes by determining resource allocation to schools.
Government investment in education and job training programs, such as the NSW Fee Free TAFE initiative, improves employment opportunities and health outcomes.

Public Health

Health regulations established by government control food safety, pharmaceutical standards and environmental health protections.
Public health initiatives funded by government address population health issues through vaccination programs and health promotion campaigns.

Housing

Political decisions on housing policies affect living conditions and associated health outcomes for different population groups.

Workforce Policies

Government healthcare workforce policies determine the availability and distribution of healthcare professionals across regions.

Health and Safety Standards

Legislative frameworks establish health and safety standards in workplaces, protecting worker health and preventing occupational injuries.

Budgeting

Budget allocation decisions by political structures, such as the NSW Ministry of Health, determine funding allocations to health services like hospitals, emergency services and mental health.
Controlling this critical flow of resources makes the political office a key determinant of health in Australia.

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Answers could include a selection of the following:

Medicare

Political structures directly influence healthcare accessibility through universal healthcare programs like Medicare.
Medicare provides free treatment in public hospitals and subsidised medical services, reducing financial barriers to healthcare

Education and training

Government policies on education funding impact long-term health outcomes by determining resource allocation to schools.
Government investment in education and job training programs, such as the NSW Fee Free TAFE initiative, improves employment opportunities and health outcomes.

Public Health

Health regulations established by government control food safety, pharmaceutical standards and environmental health protections.
Public health initiatives funded by government address population health issues through vaccination programs and health promotion campaigns.

Housing

Political decisions on housing policies affect living conditions and associated health outcomes for different population groups.

Workforce Policies

Government healthcare workforce policies determine the availability and distribution of healthcare professionals across regions.

Health and Safety Standards

Legislative frameworks establish health and safety standards in workplaces, protecting worker health and preventing occupational injuries.

Budgeting

Budget allocation decisions by political structures, such as the NSW Ministry of Health, determine funding allocations to health services like hospitals, emergency services and mental health.
Controlling this critical flow of resources makes the political office a key determinant of health in Australia.

HMS, HIC EQ-Bank 121

Discuss how language and media as broad features of society can both create and reduce health inequities in Australia. (6 marks)

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*PEEL – Solution is structured using separate PEEL methods for each side of the argument; [P] Identify the point, [E] expand on the point with a link to question asked, [Ev] apply evidence/examples, [L] linking sentence back to question.*

Creating Health Inequities

[P] On one hand, language barriers prevent effective healthcare access.
[E] This creates significant challenges when non-English speakers cannot communicate symptoms or understand treatment plans.
[Ev] For instance, Vietnamese elderly avoid hospitals due to interpreter shortages, leading to untreated diabetes complications.
[L] This demonstrates how language differences worsen health inequities.
[P] From one perspective, media representation excludes minority groups.
[E] This approach offers mainstream health messages but creates gaps for diverse communities.
[Ev] Aboriginal health campaigns using only English miss 30% of remote communities who prefer traditional languages.
[L] Media’s narrow focus amplifies existing health disparities.

Reducing Health Inequities

[P] Conversely, well directed multilingual health services can improve access.
[E] These initiatives can help diverse populations to navigate healthcare confidently and make informed decisions.
[Ev] For example, Medicare translating documents into 20 languages increased migrant health screening by 45%.
[L] In this way, language can directly reduce healthcare barriers.
[P] Culturally appropriate media can also be highly effective in promoting health equity.
[E] This creates opportunities for targeted health education reaching previously excluded groups.
[Ev] SBS radio’s multilingual COVID information reached 80% of migrant communities, improving vaccination rates.
[L] Media diversity effectively bridges health information gaps.

Despite these benefits, consistent funding for translation services remains challenging. Nevertheless, evidence shows language and media interventions significantly impact health equity when properly resourced.

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Creating Health Inequities

[P] On one hand, language barriers prevent effective healthcare access.
[E] This creates significant challenges when non-English speakers cannot communicate symptoms or understand treatment plans.
[Ev] For instance, Vietnamese elderly avoid hospitals due to interpreter shortages, leading to untreated diabetes complications.
[L] This demonstrates how language differences worsen health inequities.
[P] From one perspective, media representation excludes minority groups.
[E] This approach offers mainstream health messages but creates gaps for diverse communities.
[Ev] Aboriginal health campaigns using only English miss 30% of remote communities who prefer traditional languages.
[L] Media’s narrow focus amplifies existing health disparities.

Reducing Health Inequities

[P] Conversely, well directed multilingual health services can improve access.
[E] These initiatives can help diverse populations to navigate healthcare confidently and make informed decisions.
[Ev] For example, Medicare translating documents into 20 languages increased migrant health screening by 45%.
[L] In this way, language can directly reduce healthcare barriers.
[P] Culturally appropriate media can also be highly effective in promoting health equity.
[E] This creates opportunities for targeted health education reaching previously excluded groups.
[Ev] SBS radio’s multilingual COVID information reached 80% of migrant communities, improving vaccination rates.
[L] Media diversity effectively bridges health information gaps.

HMS, HIC EQ-Bank 120

Outline TWO ways that broad features of society create health inequities for specific population groups in Australia. (4 marks)

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Cultural barriers and discrimination

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples experience language barriers and lack of trust in healthcare providers.
Experiences of discrimination lead to avoidance of healthcare services.
This results in increased duration and severity of illness and poorer health outcomes including mental health disorders.

Political structures and healthcare policy

Migrants and refugees may face barriers accessing culturally appropriate healthcare services
Government policies often do not adequately address diverse language and cultural needs in healthcare delivery.
This can result in delayed treatment and lead to poor health outcomes for culturally diverse populations.

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Cultural barriers and discrimination

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples experience language barriers and lack of trust in healthcare providers.
Experiences of discrimination lead to avoidance of healthcare services.
This results in increased duration and severity of illness and poorer health outcomes including mental health disorders.

Political structures and healthcare policy

Migrants and refugees may face barriers accessing culturally appropriate healthcare services
Government policies often do not adequately address diverse language and cultural needs in healthcare delivery.
This can result in delayed treatment and lead to poor health outcomes for culturally diverse populations.

HMS, HIC EQ-Bank 111

Explain how media and culture as sociocultural determinants affect health outcomes, discussing both their positive and negative influences on individual and community health. (5 marks)

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Media

Media influences health through multiple channels including social media platforms, advertising and entertainment, with both intentional and unintentional health messaging affecting behaviour.
Positive media impacts include deliberate health campaigns like anti-smoking initiatives and cancer screening promotions that provide clear health information and encourage preventative actions.
However, media negatively affects health through embedded messaging promoting unrealistic body standards and glamorising harmful behaviours. This can contribute to eating disorders and poor self-image, particularly among young people.

Culture

Culture determines health through established customs, dietary patterns and healthcare practices that become normalised within communities.
Positive cultural influences include providing a sense of belonging and identity that supports emotional and spiritual wellbeing through shared traditions.
Negative cultural influences can include poor eating habits, leading to obesity, and cultural stigma surrounding issues like mental health, which discourages individuals from seeking help for psychological issues.

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Media

Media influences health through multiple channels including social media platforms, advertising and entertainment, with both intentional and unintentional health messaging affecting behaviour.
Positive media impacts include deliberate health campaigns like anti-smoking initiatives and cancer screening promotions that provide clear health information and encourage preventative actions.
However, media negatively affects health through embedded messaging promoting unrealistic body standards and glamorising harmful behaviours. This can contribute to eating disorders and poor self-image, particularly among young people.

Culture

Culture determines health through established customs, dietary patterns and healthcare practices that become normalised within communities.
Positive cultural influences include providing a sense of belonging and identity that supports emotional and spiritual wellbeing through shared traditions.
Negative cultural influences can include poor eating habits, leading to obesity, and cultural stigma surrounding issues like mental health, which discourages individuals from seeking help for psychological issues.

HMS, HIC EQ-Bank 110

Identify two key sociocultural determinants and explain how they influence health behaviours and outcomes during adolescence, providing both positive and negative examples. (5 marks)

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Answers could include two of the following:

Family Influence

[P] Parents modelling healthy behaviours can help shape adolescent lifestyle choices.
[E] This leads to teenagers developing similar exercise and eating patterns.
[Ev] Active parents produce children 50% more likely to participate in regular sports.
[L] This shows a clear connection between parental role-modelling and teen health habits.
[P] Family dysfunction and conflict cause poor coping mechanisms.
[E] This results in adolescents potentially developing harmful stress responses.
[Ev] Teens witnessing domestic violence show triple the rates of smoking and substance use.
[L] This demonstrates how family stress directly impacts adolescent health behaviours.

Peer Influence

[P] Positive peer groups encourage healthy activities and choices.
[E] This causes increased physical activity and better social connections.
[Ev] Teens with sporty friends exercise 60% more through team sports participation.
[L] These elements work together to reinforce sustainable healthy behaviours.
[P] Negative peer pressure promotes dangerous risk-taking behaviours.
[E] This increases the chances of substance experimentation for social acceptance.
[Ev] Party culture normalises binge drinking, with 70% initially trying alcohol due to peer pressure.
[L] This relationship results in social acceptance overriding health knowledge.

Religion

[P] Religious communities provide strong support networks.
[E] This causes improved mental wellbeing through belonging.
[Ev] Church youth groups reduce adolescent depression rates by 40% through meaningful connections.
[L] Spiritual communities enhance resilience during challenging developmental periods.
[P] Religious restrictions can limit healthcare access.
[E] This results in delayed treatment or untreated conditions.
[Ev] Some faiths prohibit blood transfusions, contraception or mental health medication.
[L] In this way, religious beliefs can occasionally compromise optimal health outcomes.

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Answers could include two of the following:

Family Influence

[P] Parents modelling healthy behaviours can help shape adolescent lifestyle choices.
[E] This leads to teenagers developing similar exercise and eating patterns.
[Ev] Active parents produce children 50% more likely to participate in regular sports.
[L] This shows a clear connection between parental role-modelling and teen health habits.
[P] Family dysfunction and conflict cause poor coping mechanisms.
[E] This results in adolescents potentially developing harmful stress responses.
[Ev] Teens witnessing domestic violence show triple the rates of smoking and substance use.
[L] This demonstrates how family stress directly impacts adolescent health behaviours.

Peer Influence

[P] Positive peer groups encourage healthy activities and choices.
[E] This causes increased physical activity and better social connections.
[Ev] Teens with sporty friends exercise 60% more through team sports participation.
[L] These elements work together to reinforce sustainable healthy behaviours.
[P] Negative peer pressure promotes dangerous risk-taking behaviours.
[E] This increases the chances of substance experimentation for social acceptance.
[Ev] Party culture normalises binge drinking, with 70% initially trying alcohol due to peer pressure.
[L] This relationship results in social acceptance overriding health knowledge.

Religion

[P] Religious communities provide strong support networks.
[E] This causes improved mental wellbeing through belonging.
[Ev] Church youth groups reduce adolescent depression rates by 40% through meaningful connections.
[L] Spiritual communities enhance resilience during challenging developmental periods.
[P] Religious restrictions can limit healthcare access.
[E] This results in delayed treatment or untreated conditions.
[Ev] Some faiths prohibit blood transfusions, contraception or mental health medication.
[L] In this way, religious beliefs can occasionally compromise optimal health outcomes.

HMS, HIC EQ-Bank 090 MC

Research indicates that LGBTQIA+ young people are more likely to experience mental health issues than their heterosexual peers.

This health disparity is most directly related to which sociocultural factor of society?

Cultural narratives and their transmission across generations.
Community structures that shape collective identity and belonging.
Social dynamics that influence self-perception and stress responses.
Institutional frameworks that determine resource distribution.

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\(C\)

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C is correct as social dynamics looks at societal attitudes and stigmas. This affects self-perception and can directly impact a person’s mental health through minority stress.

Other options:

A is incorrect as while cultural narratives contribute to attitudes about sexuality, they represent a broader influence than immediate social dynamics.
B is incorrect as community structures are important but don’t capture the specific psychological mechanisms through which prejudice affects mental health.
D is incorrect as institutional frameworks primarily relate to systemic determinants rather than interpersonal social dynamics most directly linked to mental health issues.

HMS, HIC EQ-Bank 089 MC

A community health campaign aims to increase fruit and vegetable consumption among teenagers.

The campaign is MOST likely to succeed if it addresses which combination of sociocultural factors?

Media influence and peer group norms
Political structures and language barriers
Economic prosperity and urban development
Geographic location and technological access

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\(A\)

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A is correct as media influence shapes perceptions about food, while peer group norms strongly affect teenage behaviour, including food choices.

Other options:

B is incorrect as political structures and language barriers, while sociocultural factors, are not the most direct influences on teenage dietary choices.
C is incorrect as these factors relate to socioeconomic and environmental determinants rather than sociocultural ones.
D is incorrect as these are environmental factors rather than sociocultural determinants of health.

HMS, HIC 2023 HSC 28aii

Explain the effect of sociocultural factors on the health of young people. (5 marks)

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Sample answer

Cultural food practices significantly influence young people’s nutritional health through inherited dietary patterns. Traditional diets create protective health effects because Mediterranean and Asian cultures emphasise vegetables, fruits and whole grains. These patterns result in reduced obesity and chronic disease risk. However, religious dietary requirements can generate access challenges when appropriate food options are unavailable outside home environments.
Cultural attitudes toward physical activity directly affect young people’s fitness levels and health outcomes. Some communities promote active lifestyles through cultural sports which enhances cardiovascular health and social connection. Conversely, cultures prioritising academic achievement over physical participation may lead to sedentary behaviours and associated health risks.
Religious and cultural values create both protective and challenging effects on health behaviours. Communities restricting alcohol and substances produce significant physical health benefits by preventing addiction and injury risks. Strong family connectedness within Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and migrant communities provides crucial mental health protection through support networks. These relationships generate resilience and belonging which reduces psychological distress during adolescent development.

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Sample answer

Cultural food practices significantly influence young people’s nutritional health through inherited dietary patterns. Traditional diets create protective health effects because Mediterranean and Asian cultures emphasise vegetables, fruits and whole grains. These patterns result in reduced obesity and chronic disease risk. However, religious dietary requirements can generate access challenges when appropriate food options are unavailable outside home environments.
Cultural attitudes toward physical activity directly affect young people’s fitness levels and health outcomes. Some communities promote active lifestyles through cultural sports which enhances cardiovascular health and social connection. Conversely, cultures prioritising academic achievement over physical participation may lead to sedentary behaviours and associated health risks.
Religious and cultural values create both protective and challenging effects on health behaviours. Communities restricting alcohol and substances produce significant physical health benefits by preventing addiction and injury risks. Strong family connectedness within Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and migrant communities provides crucial mental health protection through support networks. These relationships generate resilience and belonging which reduces psychological distress during adolescent development.

♦ Mean mark 49%.

HMS, HIC EQ-Bank 63

Complete the following table that identifies the determinants of health of young people and provides examples of each. (3 marks)

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\begin{array} {|l|l|}
\hline
\rule{0pt}{2.5ex} \text{Determinant of Health}\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \rule[-1ex]{0pt}{0pt} & \text{Example}\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \\
\hline
\rule{0pt}{2.5ex} \text{Health behaviour} \rule[-1ex]{0pt}{0pt} & \\
\hline
\rule{0pt}{2.5ex} \rule[-1ex]{0pt}{0pt} & \text{Blood pressure} \\
\hline
\rule{0pt}{2.5ex} \rule[-1ex]{0pt}{0pt} & \text{Proximity to support networks}\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \\
\hline
\rule{0pt}{2.5ex} \rule[-1ex]{0pt}{0pt} & \text{Homelessness} \\
\hline
\end{array}

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\begin{array} {|l|l|}
\hline
\rule{0pt}{2.5ex} \textbf{Determinant of Health} \rule[-1ex]{0pt}{0pt} & \textbf{Example} \\
\hline
\rule{0pt}{2.5ex} \text{Health behaviour} \rule[-1ex]{0pt}{0pt} & \text{Physical activity/sedentary behaviour} \\
\hline
\rule{0pt}{2.5ex} \text{Biomedical factor} \rule[-1ex]{0pt}{0pt} & \text{Blood pressure} \\
\hline
\rule{0pt}{2.5ex} \text{Environmental factor} \rule[-1ex]{0pt}{0pt} & \text{Proximity to support networks} \\
\hline
\rule{0pt}{2.5ex} \text{Socioeconomic factor} \rule[-1ex]{0pt}{0pt} & \text{Homelessness} \\
\hline
\end{array}

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HMS, HIC EQ-Bank 021

Outline how social media influence can act as a sociological cause of risky health behaviours among young Australians. (3 marks)

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Model Answer

Social media platforms create distorted reality where risky behaviours like binge drinking or dangerous challenges are glorified and normalised, influencing young people’s perceptions of acceptable behaviour.
Peer influence is amplified through social media, where adolescents experience pressure to conform to perceived norms, including participation in viral trends involving health risks such as vaping or extreme dieting.
Social media algorithms create echo chambers that reinforce existing attitudes, escalating exposure to content normalising risky health behaviours while minimising exposure to healthy lifestyle messages.

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Model Answer

Social media platforms create distorted reality where risky behaviours like binge drinking or dangerous challenges are glorified and normalised, influencing young people’s perceptions of acceptable behaviour.
Peer influence is amplified through social media, where adolescents experience pressure to conform to perceived norms, including participation in viral trends involving health risks such as vaping or extreme dieting.
Social media algorithms create echo chambers that reinforce existing attitudes, escalating exposure to content normalising risky health behaviours while minimising exposure to healthy lifestyle messages.

HMS, HIC EQ-Bank 013

Explain how TWO sociological determinants can influence young people's participation in risky health behaviours. Provide examples in your response. (4 marks)

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Answers could include TWO of the following:

Peer group influence

Significant sociological determinant as young people often modify their behaviour to gain acceptance from their peer group.
For example, a young person may begin vaping or drinking alcohol at social gatherings due to perceived peer pressure and desire to fit in with their social circle.

Religion

Religious restrictions can lead young people to rebel against perceived constraints.
This can result in participation in prohibited behaviours like underage drinking or drug taking when they feel an emotional need to act out.

Culture

Cultural norms within Western societies can normalise unhealthy practices.
For example, fast food consumption and tobacco smoking are more acceptable in certain cultures and contribute to obesity and respiratory conditions.
Young people often engage in these risky behaviours as they navigate identity formation within their cultural context, particularly when society presents these behaviours as desirable.

Show Worked Solution

Answers could include TWO of the following:

Peer group influence

Significant sociological determinant as young people often modify their behaviour to gain acceptance from their peer group.
For example, a young person may begin vaping or drinking alcohol at social gatherings due to perceived peer pressure and desire to fit in with their social circle.

Religion

Religious restrictions can lead young people to rebel against perceived constraints.
This can result in participation in prohibited behaviours like underage drinking or drug taking when they feel an emotional need to act out.

Culture

Cultural norms within Western societies can normalise unhealthy practices.
For example, fast food consumption and tobacco smoking are more acceptable in certain cultures and contribute to obesity and respiratory conditions.
Young people often engage in these risky behaviours as they navigate identity formation within their cultural context, particularly when society presents these behaviours as desirable.