smc-5504-05-Epidemiology

HMS, HIC 2012 HSC 23

How is epidemiology used to improve the health of Australians? Provide examples. (6 marks)

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Epidemiology identifies disease patterns within populations, enabling targeted health interventions. This occurs because health authorities analyse mortality, morbidity, incidence and prevalence data from Australia’s Health reports to understand disease distribution across different demographic groups.
For instance, epidemiological studies revealed high cardiovascular disease rates among middle-aged men in specific socioeconomic areas. This led to targeted prevention campaigns focusing on diet modification, smoking cessation and exercise programs in these communities. As a result, cardiovascular mortality rates have declined by over 80% since the 1980s, demonstrating epidemiology’s effectiveness in guiding interventions.
Epidemiology tracks infectious disease outbreaks, allowing rapid public health responses. When COVID-19 emerged, epidemiological surveillance enabled contact tracing, isolation protocols and containment strategies across Australia. This process prevented wider community transmission in many instances, particularly in rural and remote areas.
Cancer screening programs resulted from epidemiological research identifying at-risk populations and optimal screening ages. Consequently, breast cancer screening targets women aged 50-74, while bowel cancer screening focuses on adults over 50. These programs demonstrate how epidemiological evidence guides resource allocation, policy development and preventive healthcare delivery nationwide.

Show Worked Solution

Epidemiology identifies disease patterns within populations, enabling targeted health interventions. This occurs because health authorities analyse mortality, morbidity, incidence and prevalence data from Australia’s Health reports to understand disease distribution across different demographic groups.
For instance, epidemiological studies revealed high cardiovascular disease rates among middle-aged men in specific socioeconomic areas. This led to targeted prevention campaigns focusing on diet modification, smoking cessation and exercise programs in these communities. As a result, cardiovascular mortality rates have declined by over 80% since the 1980s, demonstrating epidemiology’s effectiveness in guiding interventions.
Epidemiology tracks infectious disease outbreaks, allowing rapid public health responses. When COVID-19 emerged, epidemiological surveillance enabled contact tracing, isolation protocols and containment strategies across Australia. This process prevented wider community transmission in many instances, particularly in rural and remote areas.
Cancer screening programs resulted from epidemiological research identifying at-risk populations and optimal screening ages. Consequently, breast cancer screening targets women aged 50-74, while bowel cancer screening focuses on adults over 50. These programs demonstrate how epidemiological evidence guides resource allocation, policy development and preventive healthcare delivery nationwide.

HMS, HIC 2013 HSC 2 MC

Which of the following measures is NOT used to determine the health status of the population?

Mortality
Morbidity
Quality of life
Life expectancy

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\(C\)

Show Worked Solution

C is correct: Quality of life is subjective measure, not epidemiological indicator.

Other Options:

A is incorrect: Mortality is key health status measurement tool.
B is incorrect: Morbidity measures illness levels in populations effectively.
D is incorrect: Life expectancy is standard health status indicator.

HMS, HIC 2014 HSC 3 MC

What is the purpose of epidemiology?

To identify causes and patterns of disease in a population
To track hospital admission rates and ambulance response times
To determine how health care budgets are managed by governments
To monitor prescription medicines being administered by doctors to their patients

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\(A\)

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A is correct: Epidemiology studies disease causes and patterns in populations.

Other Options:

B is incorrect: Hospital tracking is health service monitoring not epidemiology.
C is incorrect: Budget management is health economics not epidemiology.
D is incorrect: Prescription monitoring is pharmaceutical surveillance not epidemiology.

HMS, HIC 2015 HSC 15 MC

The graph shows the mortality rate (1992-2010) for a preventable chronic disease in Australia.

Which of the following is most likely to be the preventable chronic disease represented in the graph?

Obesity
Lung cancer
Type 2 diabetes
Colorectal cancer

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\(B\)

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B is correct: Lung cancer shows declining mortality with higher male rates.

Note: Historical data remains educationally relevant for teaching epidemiological interpretation skills and understanding public health trends.

Other Options:

A is incorrect: Obesity mortality rates are generally increasing not declining.
C is incorrect: Type 2 diabetes mortality shows different gender patterns.
D is incorrect: Colorectal cancer has less pronounced gender differences.

♦♦ Mean mark 54%.

HMS, HIC 2017 HSC 21

Outline the measures of epidemiology. (3 marks)

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Describe the limitations of epidemiology. (4 marks)

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a. Measures of epidemiology

Mortality measures death rates within populations over specific time periods.
Morbidity measures illness and disease rates, including incidence and prevalence.
Infant mortality measures deaths of children under one year per 1,000 live births.
Life expectancy measures average expected lifespan based on current death rates.
Incidence measures new cases of disease occurring during specific time periods.
Prevalence measures total cases of disease existing at particular points in time.

b. Epidemiology limitations

Epidemiology provides statistical patterns but cannot explain underlying causes of health behaviours.
Data collection may be incomplete or inaccurate, particularly in remote communities.
Emergency situations can prevent adequate data gathering and timely analysis.
Epidemiology focuses on population trends rather than individual health experiences.
Rapid health changes may make data outdated before analysis is completed.
Cultural and social factors influencing health are not captured by statistical measures.
Epidemiology cannot account for quality of life or subjective wellbeing indicators.

Show Worked Solution

a. Measures of epidemiology

Mortality measures death rates within populations over specific time periods.
Morbidity measures illness and disease rates, including incidence and prevalence.
Infant mortality measures deaths of children under one year per 1,000 live births.
Life expectancy measures average expected lifespan based on current death rates.
Incidence measures new cases of disease occurring during specific time periods.
Prevalence measures total cases of disease existing at particular points in time.

b. Epidemiology limitations

Epidemiology provides statistical patterns but cannot explain underlying causes of health behaviours.
Data collection may be incomplete or inaccurate, particularly in remote communities.
Emergency situations can prevent adequate data gathering and timely analysis.
Epidemiology focuses on population trends rather than individual health experiences.
Rapid health changes may make data outdated before analysis is completed.
Cultural and social factors influencing health are not captured by statistical measures.
Epidemiology cannot account for quality of life or subjective wellbeing indicators.

♦♦ Mean mark 53%.

HMS, HIC 2018 HSC 7 MC

A limitation of epidemiology as a measure of health status is that it

is rarely used by health professionals and policymakers.
only produces information on the mortality of a population.
does not explain the sociocultural risk factors that contribute to negative health behaviours.
identifies broad trends only, without reference to accurate data regarding illness and disease.

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\(C\)

Show Worked Solution

C is correct: Epidemiology shows patterns but doesn’t explain underlying sociocultural causes of behaviours.

Other Options:

A is incorrect: Epidemiology is widely used by health professionals for policy decisions.
B is incorrect: Epidemiology covers morbidity, incidence, and prevalence, not just mortality.
D is incorrect: Epidemiology provides accurate statistical data on illness and disease patterns.

HMS, HIC 2019 HSC 18 MC

Which of the following identifies epidemiology trends in Australia over the past ten years?

	Increased	Decreased	No change
A.	Adults who smoke daily	Immunisation rates for children	Lung cancer incidence
B.	Immunisation rates for children	Incidence of heart attacks	Lung cancer incidence
C.	Incidence of heart attacks	Elective surgery waiting time	Life expectancy
D.	Life expectancy	Adults who smoke daily	Immunisation rates for children

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\(B\)

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B is correct: Immunisation rates increased, heart attacks decreased, lung cancer incidence unchanged.

Other Options:

A is incorrect: Immunisation rates have increased, not decreased over ten years.
C is incorrect: Heart attacks have decreased, not increased in recent years.
D is incorrect: Life expectancy has increased, not remained unchanged over time.

♦♦♦♦♦ Mean mark 25%.

HMS, HIC 2020 HSC 2 MC

Which of the following identifies the measures of epidemiology?

Diversity, life expectancy, morbidity, quality of life
Infant mortality, life expectancy, morbidity, mortality
Health status, incidence of disease, morbidity, mortality
Infant mortality, mortality, prevalence of disease, quality of life

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\(B\)

Show Worked Solution

B is correct: All four are standard epidemiological measures of population health.

Other Options:

A is incorrect: Diversity and quality of life not epidemiological measures.
C is incorrect: Health status and incidence too general or specific.
D is incorrect: Quality of life not an epidemiological measure.

HMS, HIC 2021 HSC 1 MC

Which of the following describes the trend in life expectancy at birth in Australia over the last 10 years?

Stable
Increasing
Decreasing
No clear trend

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\(B\)

Show Worked Solution

B is correct: Life expectancy has shown consistent upward trend over the decade.

Other Options:

A is incorrect: Shows gradual but measurable increases.
C is incorrect: Opposite direction to actual trend.
D is incorrect: Clear pattern exists in data.

HMS, HIC 2023 HSC 21

Describe how does ONE organisation use epidemiological data in Australia? (3 marks)

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Sample Answer – other answers possible

The Cancer Council analyses cancer incidence and mortality rates across Australian populations. The organisation examines demographic patterns including age groups, gender differences and geographical variations in cancer occurrence. This data reveals specific cancer trends and high-risk population segments.
Cancer Council produces research reports documenting cancer statistics, survival rates and screening programme effectiveness. These publications guide prevention campaigns and inform healthcare policy development for cancer services.

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Sample Answer – other answers possible

The Cancer Council analyses cancer incidence and mortality rates across Australian populations. The organisation examines demographic patterns including age groups, gender differences and geographical variations in cancer occurrence. This data reveals specific cancer trends and high-risk population segments.
Cancer Council produces research reports documenting cancer statistics, survival rates and screening programme effectiveness. These publications guide prevention campaigns and inform healthcare policy development for cancer services.

HMS, HIC EQ-Bank 028

Discuss how THREE epidemiological measures are used to explain the health status of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples in Australia.

In your response, include specific examples from health reports to illustrate the role of these measures. (5 marks)

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*PEEL – Solution is structured using the PEEL method; [P] Identify the point, [E] expand on the point with a link to question asked, [Ev] apply evidence/examples, [L] linking sentence back to question.

Mortality rates

[P] Mortality rates are used to identify inequities in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health status.
[E] This measure shows progress and ongoing inequities.
[Ev] Australia’s Health 2024 reports cardiovascular deaths fell 22% for Indigenous Peoples, yet remain higher than non-Indigenous rates.
[L] This creates evidence of success and challenges requiring continued focus.

Infant mortality rates

[P] Infant mortality rates provide insight into maternal health services, living conditions and healthcare access.
[E] Infant mortality rates have improved from 6.9 to 5.4 per 1,000 births but are still nearly double non-Indigenous rates of 3.1 per 1,000 births.
[Ev] While indicating healthcare access, remote data collection is extremely challenging and can be incomplete.
[L] Despite limitations, this measure is an important determinant of maternal and child health programs.

Prevalence of disease

[P] Prevalence measures the proportion of a population affected by specific conditions.
[E] This reveals chronic conditions requiring programs, although undiagnosed cases affect the accuracy of statistics.
[Ev] For example, the prevalence of diabetes among Indigenous adults (7.9%) is almost double the rate of non-Indigenous Australians (4.1%).
[L] This highlights areas requiring intervention programs and reveals the impact of social determinants of health, including food security and healthcare access in remote communities.

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Mortality rates

[P] Mortality rates are used to identify inequities in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health status.
[E] This measure shows progress and ongoing inequities.
[Ev] Australia’s Health 2024 reports cardiovascular deaths fell 22% for Indigenous Peoples, yet remain higher than non-Indigenous rates.
[L] This creates evidence of success and challenges requiring continued focus.

Infant mortality rates

[P] Infant mortality rates provide insight into maternal health services, living conditions and healthcare access.
[E] Infant mortality rates have improved from 6.9 to 5.4 per 1,000 births but are still nearly double non-Indigenous rates of 3.1 per 1,000 births.
[Ev] While indicating healthcare access, remote data collection is extremely challenging and can be incomplete.
[L] Despite limitations, this measure is an important determinant of maternal and child health programs.

Prevalence of disease

[P] Prevalence measures the proportion of a population affected by specific conditions.
[E] This reveals chronic conditions requiring programs, although undiagnosed cases affect the accuracy of statistics.
[Ev] For example, the prevalence of diabetes among Indigenous adults (7.9%) is almost double the rate of non-Indigenous Australians (4.1%).
[L] This highlights areas requiring intervention programs and reveals the impact of social determinants of health, including food security and healthcare access in remote communities.

HMS, HIC EQ-Bank 020 MC

Researchers are comparing the health status of two regions in Australia using the data below:

\begin{align*}
\begin{array}{|l|l|l|}
\hline
\rule{0pt}{2.5ex}\textbf{Measure}\rule[-1ex]{0pt}{0pt}& \textbf{Region X} & \textbf{Region Y}\\
\hline
\rule{0pt}{2.5ex}\text{Infant mortality rate (per 1,000 live births)}\rule[-1ex]{0pt}{0pt}&\text{4.1}&\text{3.2}\\
\hline
\rule{0pt}{2.5ex}\text{Life expectancy at birth}\rule[-1ex]{0pt}{0pt}& \text{82.3}& \text{84.1}\\
\hline
\rule{0pt}{2.5ex}\text{Prevalence of diabetes (%)}\rule[-1ex]{0pt}{0pt}&\text{5.6}&\text{4.8}\\
\hline
\rule{0pt}{2.5ex}\text{Hospital admissions for respiratory conditions (per 100,000)}\rule[-1ex]{0pt}{0pt}&\text{1,520}&\text{1,320}\\
\hline
\end{array}
\end{align*}

Based on these epidemiological measures, which statement is most accurate?

Region X has better overall health outcomes than Region Y.
Region Y has better overall health outcomes than Region X.
The data shows mixed results with no clear pattern of better health outcomes.
The measures used are insufficient to compare health outcomes between regions.

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\( B\)

Show Worked Solution

B is correct because all four measures indicate better health in Region Y: lower infant mortality, higher life expectancy, lower diabetes prevalence, and fewer hospital admissions for respiratory conditions.

\(\Rightarrow B\)

HMS, HIC EQ-Bank 025

The graph below shows the prevalence of 12-month mental disorders (i.e. had a mental disorder in the past 12 months) by age group and gender in Australia for 2020-2022.

Identify two key trends in the prevalence of mental disorders shown in the graph and explain possible reasons for these patterns. (4 marks)

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Trend 1

Females consistently show higher prevalence of mental disorders across all age groups compared to males, with the largest gender gap in the 16-24 age group (46% vs 32%).

Trend 2

Mental disorder prevalence decreases significantly with age for both genders, declining from approximately 39% in 16-24 year-olds to 6% in 75-85 year-olds.

Reasons for higher female prevalence

Hormonal influences during reproductive years, greater likelihood of reporting mental health symptoms, and increased exposure to social pressures including social media impacts.

Reasons for age-related decline

Older adults develop better coping mechanisms over time, generational differences in mental health recognition and reporting, and potential survivor bias where those with severe mental health issues may not reach older ages.

Show Worked Solution

Trend 1

Females consistently show higher prevalence of mental disorders across all age groups compared to males, with the largest gender gap in the 16-24 age group (46% vs 32%).

Trend 2

Mental disorder prevalence decreases significantly with age for both genders, declining from approximately 39% in 16-24 year-olds to 6% in 75-85 year-olds.

Reasons for higher female prevalence

Hormonal influences during reproductive years, greater likelihood of reporting mental health symptoms, and increased exposure to social pressures including social media impacts.

Reasons for age-related decline

Older adults develop better coping mechanisms over time, generational differences in mental health recognition and reporting, and potential survivor bias where those with severe mental health issues may not reach older ages.

HMS, HIC EQ-Bank 024

The graph below shows the prevalence of diabetes (type 1, type 2 and other diabetes excluding gestational diabetes) in Australia from 2000-2021.

Analyse the trends and discuss what these patterns suggest about the health status of Australians. (8 marks)

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*PEEL – Solution is structured using an adjusted PEEL method; [P] Identify components and their relationship, [E] explain the interaction/influence between them, [Ev] provide evidence showing the relationship in action, [L] linking sentence back to question.

[P] Rising diabetes prevalence (2000-2013) connects directly to lifestyle changes and demographics.
[E] This trend directly influences the population’s health through increased obesity rates interacting with sedentary behaviours.
[Ev] The graph shows prevalence climbing steadily as these risk factors combine.
[L] This establishes a cause-effect pattern revealing deteriorating health behaviours among Australians.
[P] The plateau after 2013 relates to intervention effectiveness.
[E] The relationship between prevention programs and prevalence rates shows stabilisation occurring when awareness campaigns interact with early screening.
[Ev] These elements combine to produce the flattening trend visible from 2013-2021.
[L] This interaction demonstrates that targeted health strategies can influence disease patterns.
[P] Gender disparity reveals different risk profiles between males and females.
[E] Males’ consistently higher rates result from the combination of poorer health behaviours and reduced healthcare engagement.
[Ev] The 1% gap demonstrates how lifestyle factors function through the interaction of diet, exercise and medical check-ups.
[L] This dynamic shows that gender-specific approaches are important to address health issues.
[P] Sustained high prevalence indicates a continuing systemic issue despite stabilisation.
[E] This trend reveals that ongoing healthcare demands are operating on multiple levels – managing existing cases while preventing new ones.
[Ev] High rates persisting means that, in practice, resources remain stretched.
[L] This fact reveals how chronic disease remains a defining feature of Australia’s health status.

Show Worked Solution

[P] Rising diabetes prevalence (2000-2013) connects directly to lifestyle changes and demographics.
[E] This trend directly influences the population’s health through increased obesity rates interacting with sedentary behaviours.
[Ev] The graph shows prevalence climbing steadily as these risk factors combine.
[L] This establishes a cause-effect pattern revealing deteriorating health behaviours among Australians.
[P] The plateau after 2013 relates to intervention effectiveness.
[E] The relationship between prevention programs and prevalence rates shows stabilisation occurring when awareness campaigns interact with early screening.
[Ev] These elements combine to produce the flattening trend visible from 2013-2021.
[L] This interaction demonstrates that targeted health strategies can influence disease patterns.
[P] Gender disparity reveals different risk profiles between males and females.
[E] Males’ consistently higher rates result from the combination of poorer health behaviours and reduced healthcare engagement.
[Ev] The 1% gap demonstrates how lifestyle factors function through the interaction of diet, exercise and medical check-ups.
[L] This dynamic shows that gender-specific approaches are important to address health issues.
[P] Sustained high prevalence indicates a continuing systemic issue despite stabilisation.
[E] This trend reveals that ongoing healthcare demands are operating on multiple levels – managing existing cases while preventing new ones.
[Ev] High rates persisting means that, in practice, resources remain stretched.
[L] This fact reveals how chronic disease remains a defining feature of Australia’s health status.

HMS, HIC EQ-Bank 023

Explain how epidemiological data on mortality rates can be used to identify priority health issues in Australia. (5 marks)

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*PEEL – Solution is structured using an adjusted PEEL method to show cause and effect: [P] State the cause/factor [E] Show how it causes the effect [Ev] Evidence demonstrating why/how [L] Reinforce the causal relationship.

[P] Mortality data identifies leading causes of death.
[E] This causes health authorities to allocate resources to high-fatality conditions.
[Ev] For example, because data shows cardiovascular disease and cancers kill the most Australians, it follows that funding should be increased for cardiac units and cancer research.
[L] This direct link between death statistics and resource allocation ensures targeted health interventions.
[P] Age-standardised rates enable population comparisons.
[E] This leads to identification of at-risk groups needing specific programs.
[Ev] As a result, when data reveals Indigenous Australians have higher diabetes mortality, culturally-specific prevention programs are developed.
[L] This relationship results in evidence-based health policies addressing population disparities.
[P] Premature mortality measures highlight youth deaths.
[E] This causes prioritisation of conditions affecting younger populations.
[Ev] Premature mortality measures like potential years of life lost (PYLL) data shows suicide and road accidents are major causes of early death, leading to youth mental health initiatives and road safety campaigns.
[L] This demonstrates why mortality analysis drives prevention strategies beyond just total death counts.

Show Worked Solution

[P] Mortality data identifies leading causes of death.
[E] This causes health authorities to allocate resources to high-fatality conditions.
[Ev] For example, because data shows cardiovascular disease and cancers kill the most Australians, it follows that funding should be increased for cardiac units and cancer research.
[L] This direct link between death statistics and resource allocation ensures targeted health interventions.
[P] Age-standardised rates enable population comparisons.
[E] This leads to identification of at-risk groups needing specific programs.
[Ev] As a result, when data reveals Indigenous Australians have higher diabetes mortality, culturally-specific prevention programs are developed.
[L] This relationship results in evidence-based health policies addressing population disparities.
[P] Premature mortality measures highlight youth deaths.
[E] This causes prioritisation of conditions affecting younger populations.
[Ev] Premature mortality measures like potential years of life lost (PYLL) data shows suicide and road accidents are major causes of early death, leading to youth mental health initiatives and road safety campaigns.
[L] This demonstrates why mortality analysis drives prevention strategies beyond just total death counts.

HMS, HIC EQ-Bank 008

Explain how epidemiologists use both incidence and prevalence data when monitoring a chronic disease such as diabetes in Australia. (4 marks)

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[P] Epidemiologists collect incidence data to track new diabetes cases.
[E] This leads to identifying emerging patterns and at-risk groups.
[Ev] This occurs because incidence shows how many people develop diabetes each year, revealing if rates are increasing in specific populations like young adults.
[L] This relationship results in targeted prevention programs for high-risk groups.
[P] Prevalence data provides total diabetes numbers.
[E] This causes accurate healthcare planning and resource allocation.
[Ev] The reason for this is prevalence shows everyone currently living with diabetes, enabling calculation of insulin supplies and specialist services needed .
[L] This demonstrates why prevalence directly influences healthcare budget decisions.
[P] Combining both data types creates comprehensive monitoring.
[E] This enables evaluation of intervention effectiveness.
[Ev] This works by comparing whether prevention programs reduce new cases (incidence) while managing existing cases (prevalence).
[L] These elements work together to show if Australia’s diabetes strategies succeed.

Show Worked Solution

[P] Epidemiologists collect incidence data to track new diabetes cases.
[E] This leads to identifying emerging patterns and at-risk groups.
[Ev] This occurs because incidence shows how many people develop diabetes each year, revealing if rates are increasing in specific populations like young adults.
[L] This relationship results in targeted prevention programs for high-risk groups.
[P] Prevalence data provides total diabetes numbers.
[E] This causes accurate healthcare planning and resource allocation.
[Ev] The reason for this is prevalence shows everyone currently living with diabetes, enabling calculation of insulin supplies and specialist services needed .
[L] This demonstrates why prevalence directly influences healthcare budget decisions.
[P] Combining both data types creates comprehensive monitoring.
[E] This enables evaluation of intervention effectiveness.
[Ev] This works by comparing whether prevention programs reduce new cases (incidence) while managing existing cases (prevalence).
[L] These elements work together to show if Australia’s diabetes strategies succeed.

HMS, HIC EQ-Bank 007 MC

A researcher wants to determine how many people are currently living with Type 2 diabetes in Australia. Which epidemiological measure would be most appropriate to use?

Incidence
Prevalence
Morbidity
Mortality

Show Answers Only

\(B\)

Show Worked Solution

B is correct as prevalence measures the total number or proportion of cases in a population at a given time (the existing cases).

Other options:

A is incorrect because incidence measures new cases over a period, not current cases.
C is incorrect as morbidity is a broader term referring to the state of illness, not specifically the count.
D is incorrect as mortality refers to death rates, not living cases.